Grammars Summary

 Grammars Summary

                                                                                                                                                                                      

 

Book13 1 We use so after some verbs as a substitute for a that –noun clause . the most common verbs followed by so are think ,believe ,guess, hope ,imagine , and suppose   Will jack come to the party ?       I think so .( I think that jack will come ) Has bill finished his work ?       I hope so .(I hope that bill has finished his work)   The negative depends on the verb:   I think so ……………I don’t  think so I believe so ………….I don’t  believe so I imagine so ………….I don’t  imagine so I suppose so ……………I don’t  suppose so   I guess so …………I guess not I hope so ……………..I hope not

Book13 2 We use a that – clause after the adjective certain, sure, positive. to express an opinion about someone or something   I’m certain that ,I can go this weekend He’s sure that he’ll pass the test. We‘re positive that we’ll have enough money for the car.   The conjunction “ that “ is many times omitted in conversation

Book13 3 The –er and – est forms are used with one –syllable adverbs. Early                earlier (than)               the earliest Far                   farther   (than )            the farthest                          Further (than)              the furthest Hard                harder than                   the hardest High                higher than                   the highest Late                 later than                      the latest Low                 lower than                    the lowest Near                 nearer than                  the nearest Slow                slower than                  the slowest Soon                sooner than                  the soonest Straight            straighter than              the straightest Early is an exception to the rule

Book13 4 Could is frequently  used to request permission it is like may and can   Could I borrow your book .please ? May I ask you a question / Can I leave early today? Can or cant are usually used as responses to a request for permission with could Could I borrow your book ,please ? Yes ,of course you can Could I leave early today? I’m sorry .your can’t

Book13 5 May ,might, and could are used to express possibility   He may be in his office He might be eating lunch He could be at home   Can ,and is/am/are able to  are used to express ability in the present or future , could and was /were able to are used for the past . She can speak three languages They are able to speak French and Spanish My grand father was able to speak Russian May ,can,and could are used to request a permission May I come in ? Can I swim here ? Could I use your phone ?

Book13 6 Could may can Do you mind if …..? Is it okay to ………….? Would it be okay to ……….? Is it okay if …………….?

Book13 7 Adjective usually modify or describe nouns   A nice day A cold winter   Nouns can also modify nouns ,they are called noun adjuncts they are always singular . A store that sell shoes is a shoe store My brother drives trucks , he a truck driver . When a noun modifies another noun . the first noun is stressed    A can opener    A wedding ring    Some paint brushes

Book13 8 The term phrasal verb refers to a verb and an adverb that together. This verb and adverb have a special meaning He put on his hat  She wrote down the telephone number They threw away the old newspaper Many times a phrasal verb will have an object There are two possible positions for the object . if the object is a noun . it can come before the adverb or after it He turned on the radio He turned the radio on She’ll look up the word in the dictionary She’ll look the word up in the dictionary If the object of phrasal verb is a pronoun (me,you,him,her,etc),the pronoun must be between the verb and the adverb I like the hat . try it on I’ll give you the money .but you must pay it back She’s sleeping .don’t wake her up Phrasal verbs are very common in conversation .

Book13 9 When a modal is used in direct speech ,it is frequently changed in reported speech   Direct speech (present tense )                    reported speech (past tense ) May                                                              might Might                                                            might Can                                                                could Am/is/are able you                                       was/were able to

Book13 10 The suffix –er and –or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to express the meaning of “ one who “ or “ that which “ He teaches students to read He’s a teacher She collects stamps  She’s a stamp collector   Collector , visitor ,educator ,and instructor are spelled with – or

Book13 11 The question word how has many uses ,it is  often used with adjectives to ask questions How long asks about length How high asks about height How tall asks about length How far asks about length How wide asks about width How deep asks about depth How old asks about age How heavy asks about  weight How hot/cold asks about temperature A question with what can be used for a question with how How long is it ? What’s its length / * tall is used to refer to someone or something from the ground  up ;high is used when talking about something at a point above the ground

Book13 12 To change INCHES to CEN-S multiply by 2.5400 To change FEET to METRS multiply by 0.3048 To change YARDS to METRS multiply by 0.9144. To change MILES to KILOM multiply by 1.6093

Book13 13 certain if-conditional sentences express something that is true .the simple present tense can be used in the if-clause and the imperative or present tense in the main clause IF-CLAUSE                 MAIN – CLAUSE (condition)                    (result ) If the TV doesn’t work ,push this button If I get up at 0600, I get work on time . If I don’t eat lunch , I become hungry by 2:00 p.m

Book13 14 Large quantities Many is used to refer to count nouns Much is used to refer to no count nouns ,it’s usually used in negative sentences A lot is used to refer to both count and non count nouns Small quantities A few is used to refer to count nouns A little is used to refer to non count nouns General quantities Some ,any ,and are used to refer to both count and non count nouns Use some in affirmative statement and question Use any in negative statement and question Use non

Book14 1 Count nouns are that may be preceded by  a   or   an   in the singular A book       a man An apple    a fish

Book14 2 Count nouns can be made plural Regular plurals are formed by adding : Irregular plurals have deferent forms . -es to words ending in these letter:ch,ce,s,z,ge,sh,x -es and changing the y to I to words ending in CorY . -S to other words Boxes Sandwiches Dresses Inches Pages wishes   Families Duties Cities libraries Books Chairs Tables Words boys Fish Deer Children Feet Teeth Men Women knives

Book 14 3 The –es or –s that is added to count nouns to form plural has three deferent pronunciation /IZ/                                       /S/                                            /Z/ Boxes                                         books                                              tables Dresses                                     suits                                                    sons Sandwiches                             cooks                                                  words Dishes                                       cups                                                  windows Pages                                        boots                                                    boys Horses                                      recruits                                                duties Quizzes                                    ranks                                                    jobs Chances                                   basics                                                    caves Classes                                                                                                  eggs Service

Book14 4 Just and soon are adverbs of time. Just is used to indicate recent completion in the past Soon is used to indicate expected completion in the near future Ex: john just arrived from N.Y. His brother will arrive from L.A soon.

Book14 5 We use an as ……….as  construction with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons look at the examples 1.      jack is twenty years old        bill is twenty years old        jack is as old as bill ( they are the same age ) 2.      fred is rich       fred is richer than his brother john       john is non as rich as his brother fred 3.      Linda finished her work in two hours       betty finished in the same time       betty worked as fast as Linda worked        ( betty and Linda worked at the same speed ) 4.      bob studies hard every night       mary sometimes studies        mary doesn’t study as hard as bob does       ( bob studies harder than mary

Book14 6 The future progressive is formed with : Will+be +verb –ing It is used to express an action that will be in progress at or up to a particular time in the future We’ll be leaving at noon on Friday Tom wont be leaving until midnight  tonight

Book14 7 We can use certain adverbs before adjectives and other adverbs to make the meaning stronger These adverbs have the general meaning stronger These adverbs have the general meaning of very for example Extremely cheap ( adverb+ adjective ) Really interesting ( adverb+ adjective ) Rather good ( adverb+ adjective ) Terribly noisy ( adverb+ adjective ) Quite fast ( adverb+ adverb ) So well ( adverb+ adverb ) Very quickly( adverb+ adverb )

Book14 8 Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place .it comes right after the place We found a restaurant The food was good (at the restaurant ) We found a restaurant where the food was good ( where refers to restaurant , a place ) When is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time it comes right after the noun The summer was hot We went to san Francisco ( during that summer ) The summer when we went to san Francisco was hot ( when refer to summer ,a noun of time )

Book14 9 Certain if-conditional sentences express something that is true . the present progressive or the present perfect can be used in the if – clause ,and the future ,a model ,or the imperative can be use in the main clause     If-clause (condition) Main clause (result ) Present progressive If you are looking for bill Future /model / imperative You ‘ll find him in the library You can find him in the library Go to the library Present perfect If you haven’t been to the park Future /model / imperative We’re going to go this Sunday You should go this Sunday Go this Sunday

Book14 10 A gerund is the –ing form of a verb Examples eating ,playing ,sleeping A gerund is used as a noun . the most common noun function of the gerund is the object of a verb the gerund plus the words that go with it is called a gerund phrase He enjoys teaching English We finshed working a bout an hour ago A gerund or gerund phrase can also be used as the subject of a sentence Driving on wet roads can be dangerous Learning a second language is fun A gerund or gerund phrase can be used as the object of a preposition You can turn off the radio by pushing this button Are you interested in learning german ? He apologized for being late The following is a list of common preposition combinations with verbs and adjectives that gerund can be follow: Verb+preposition Apologize for ,Believe in ,Decide on ,Finish with, Look forward to , Plan on ,Thank someone for , Adjective +preposition, Afraid of ,Bored with ,Excited about ,Fond of ,Frightened of ,Happy about , Interested in ,Nervous about, Proud of, Scared of, talk about , Think of ,Tired of ,Worried about ,

Book14 11 Must is used with the simple present tense or the present progressive to the simple express probability. Steve is smiling .he must be happy I smell smoke .something must be burning Must not is used for the negative John’s lights are off he must not be at home Betty isn’t eating ,she must not be hungry

Book14 12 We use the modals must ,may ,might and could To make deductions and conditions from the information that we receive Must is used when we are very sure or very certain about something may,might and could are used when we are less sure or certain Must …………..very sure May Might Could    ……….less sure

Book14 13 Will and be going to are both used to express future time Frank will finish packing tonight He is going to finish packing tonight Could and would are used to make requests Would you close the window ,please ? Could you please hand me to to sugar?

Book14 14 Should and ought to are both used to give advice You don’t look good .you should see a doctor You don’t look good ,you ought to see a doctor The negative contraction of should is shouldn’t Ought to is not usually used in the negative or questions

Book14 15 When a modal is used in direct speech ,it is frequently changed in reported speech Direct speech (present tense ) Reported speech (past tense )   Will Present –be going to Must(necessity ) Have /has-to Not have to must not (prohibition ) Would Past-be going to Had to Had to Didn’t have to Must not   Notice that had to is used instead of must in past tense reported speech when must means necessity

Book15 1 There are some adverbs that are called adverbs of frequency (never ,ever ,seldom,,always,usually ,often frequently ,occasionally, sometimes) Notice where they are in the sentences. the most common position is before the verb ,but after be they can also come at the beginning or end of sentence   She is Is she She Does she Seldom Usually Never always   On time On time? Comes here Comes here?

Book15 2 More and most are used with adverbs of 2 or more syllables for the comparative and superlative forms Adverb comparative superlative Slowly Carefully Frequently More slowly than More carefully than More frequently than The most slowly The most carefully The most frequently

These are some examples of adverbs formed by adding –ly to adjectives * note the spelling changes Correct beautiful Natural Soft Quit Easy Reasonable Careful Cautious Slow Nervous Quick Angry   Correctly Beautifully Naturally Softly quietly Easily Reasonably Carefully Cautiously Slowly Nervously Quickly Angrily

Book15 3 The suffix – ion may be added to some verbs to form nouns .note the spelling Changes Collect Educate Locate Operate Confuse Instruct Select Promote   Collection Education Location Operation Confusion Instruction Selection promotion

Book15 4 We use will and would to say what we want or want to do Can I help you please? Yes ,I’d like a cheese sandwich (= I want a cheese sandwich) We’re having a party next weekend .can you come? Yes, I’d love to. (=yes ,I’ want to help you with it)

Book15 5 Should ,ought to ,and be supposed to have with it the same meaning they are used to give advice you should study more you ought to do better We’re supposed to take off our hats inside used to is used to express an activity Situation ,or a habit that existed in the past But which no longer exists *I used to smoke ten years ago ,but I don’t any longer Would is used to express an action that repeated regularly in the past Use to – can also be used this way when I was a boy .my father would play baseball with us * when I was a boy .my father used to play baseball with us Must Is used to express deduction and probability John’s not in class he must be sick today

Book15 6 Can is used to say that something is possible *we can see the lake from the living room *you can walk to the pool .it’s very close * flying in an airplane can be dangerous

Book15 7 To express an indefinite place or location we use the adverbs some where ,anywhere and nowhere This is how are used : Somewhere in affirmative questions/ statements Anywhere in affirmative questions/ negative statements Nowhere in short answers. (nowhere means not anywhere ) Are you going somewhere ? Are you ging anywhere ? Yes I’m going Somewhere No I;m not going Any where Where are you going   nowhere

Book15 8 Was were going to is used to say what someone intended to do in the past ,but didn’t *John was going to fly to Paris,But he changed his mind * my sister was going to meet me for dinner ,but she forgot

Book15 9 The word else is used with adverb and pronoun compounds of some- ,any- , no-,and every -: Somebody else /some one else = some other person Anybody else /any body else /any one else =any other person Every body else /every one else = every other person Some thing else = some other thing Any thing else =any other thing Nothing else =no other thing Every thing else = every other thing Some where else =in/at /to some other place Any where else =in/at /to any other place Nowhere else =in/at/to every other place

Book15 10 When a modal is used in direct speech .it is sometimes change in reported speech ,notice will/would Direct speech (present tense) Reported speech (past tense )   Ought to /should Used to /would Must/must not Was /were going Would like to Will*/would Ought to/should Used to/would Must /must not Was/were going to Would like to Would *

Book15 11 The following words are reflexive pronouns : Myself ,ourselves, Yourself, yourselves Him self , them selves Herself  Itself A reflexive pronoun is used as an object and refers to the sentence or clause * sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis

Book15 12 We use adjectives after certain verbs called linking verbs. when adjective is used after a linking verb, the adjective modifies the subject of the sentence The most common linking verbs are : Appear ,get ,smell ,Be, keep ,sound ,Become, seem,  taste Your friend is very nice The coffee tastes strong Tom appeared calm during the storm The food will remain cold on the ice Bill seems nervous about his operation

Book15 13 The suffix –ly can be added to nouns of time make adjectives and ,the most common are : Day +ly     daily Hour +ly    hourly Month +ly   monthly Night +ly   nightly Week +ly weekly Year +ly   yearly The + ly words above can be use as both adjectives and adverbs

Book16 1 It’s A good plan Expensive Not healthy To save To take To skip Money every month A taxi Meals

Book16 2 You Had better ‘d better Pay the rent today Get to class on time Stop at the red light You Had better not ‘d better not Forget to pay therent Be late for class Run the red light

Book16 3 Use the infinitive of the verb (without to) After “why don’t you “ and “ why not “ why Don’t I You We Ask for a drink? Call him? Watch the news? Start jogging? Open it now not

Book16 4 the past perfect tense expresses an activity that was completed before another activity occurred in the past He I She   Started the car Hadn’t met him Had gone inside After they’d fastened their seat belt Before he came to our class By the time he thought to ask here The past perfect tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb . it is used when you are talking about two thing that have already

Book16 5 had Asked Caused Dropped Hoped Lived Moved Bought Eaten Heard Seen Thought I had = I’d You had =you’d We had =we’d They had =they’d He had =he;d She had =she ‘d Had +not =hadn’t

Book16 6 Passive voice : be- passive   Subject Verb Object Agent The secretary Types The letter   The letters Are typed   (by the secretary  To form the be – passive : Add be+ - ed ( past participle ) to the verb move the object of the sentence to the subject position Add by to the original subject and move it to the agent position . the agent may be omitted

Book16 7 I Must Have to Have got to Cash a check

Book16 8 The soldiers The tourists Ted and bob Had been Hadn’t been Marching Napping Watching For hours before dinner During the rain storm Tv while I was shopping

Book16 9     I You He She We they   Prefer(s) Meat to chicken Beating to sking Tea rather than coffee To ride rather than walk

Book16 10 He was It’s Iam Easy Impossible Difficult (for me) To understand To eat ice cream on cold days To be with when I’m mad !

Book16 11 It is safe to drink water from this lake ? Be Is Was Were Easy Safe Difficult Impossible   To walk To speak To carry To finish

Book16 12 I     Sue He       You Bill and I They Am Was   Is Was       Are were     Unable to Fix it Sue   Is n’t able to Is unable to Can’t Install the battery Frank Wasn’t able to Was able to Couldn’t Be here last night

Book16 13   I’m Jim couldn’t Do you swim Dirty enough Fast enough Regularly enough To take a shower To catch bill To keep it?

Book16 14 Count noun things that can be counted Non count noun are that can’t be counted Lessons Showers Dollars Spoons Cups Glasses Minutes People Information Rain Money sugar Coffee Water Time news Too many is used to express “ more than enough “ use too many with count nouns Too much also means” more than enough “Use” too much” with non count nouns

Book16 15 Apply Cancel Continue Examine Imagine Invite prepare recommend + ation Application Cancellation Continuation Examination Imagination Invitation Preparation Recommendation

Book17 1 The linking verbs in the list are used to express a state or condition they also reflect A point of view john Is (to me *) like His father It Tastes Sounds Looks Smells Feels Sems Appears The cake we had in Paris A good idea A nice place A nice place to stay Smoke in this room Another cold evening The right yhing to do   This can also be placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence

Book17 2  To be often follows the verbs appear and seem in the pattern He Seems Appears ( to me ) To be Angry A nice person In a  hurry Interested in books   This is sometimes placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence

Book17 3 Indirect speech : yes / no questions Direct speech John : Can we Go finishing? Indirect speech John asked (Sam ) Whether ,if They could Go fishing     Direct speech Jack : Do you want To go to Europe? Indirect speech Jack asked (me) Whether If I wanted To go to Europe   Note that the present tense verbs change to past tense , the order of the verb and the subject changes ,and the pronouns and possive adjectives change from one person to another

Book17 4 Decide Destroy Divide Intend Produce Prescribe Reduce Solve Decision Destruction Division Intention Production Prescription Reduction Solution

Book17 5   Is it supposed to rain? I don’t know I wonder I can’t remember I ‘ve forgotten I’m not sure I have no idea If Whether It’s supposed to rain (or not )   When a yes /no question is changed to a noun clause ,whether or if is used to introduce the clause

Book17 6   Is major Simms in ? Do you know Can you tell me Could you tell me Could you please tell me Do you have any idea Do you by any chance know If Whether It’s supposed to rain (or not ) Major Simms is in (or not )?

Book17 7   When What Does the library open ? Time is it ? Do you know Can you tell me Could you tell me Could you please tell me Do you have any idea Do you by any chance know When What The library opens ? Time it is?   When a question –word question is changed a noun clause The same question word is used to introduce the clause

Book17 8   Where When Who Is the library? Will he leave ? can help me ?   I wonder I dpn’t know I can’t remember I ‘ve forgotten I;m not sure I have no idea Where When Who   the library Is he Will leave can help me

Book17 9   I Prefer Like My coffee Hot Black Strong   Note that in this type of sentence , the noun or pronoun comes before the adjective

Book17 10 Active voice Subject Verb Object They Will Must Ought to Should Can May Might Could Have to Don’t have to Put on Wear Remove Take off   Shoes Hats Gloves   Passive voice   Subject Verb Object Shoes Hats gloves Will Must Ought to Should Can May Might Could Have to Don’t have to Put on Worn Removed Taken off   (by them )

Book17 11 I didn’t Decide Find out Forget Know Learn Remember     When Which How who where what   To leave To buy To cook To ask To go To do Show Tell Teach ask (her) (him ) (them ) (you)

Book17 12 although my apartment is quite small .I like it a lot I like my apartment a lot although it is quite small Though that restaurant is very expensive ,it’s always full That restaurant is always full it is very expensive Even though parade full ,many people stayed Many people stayed even though the parade was long

Book17 13 The fire I You   Soft Weak Black Hard Dark -en (s) - ened The pots The dishes We The workers bill Short Wide Deep   The pool The lake Tight Sharp Loose The screw The death Sad The children

Book17 14   Tag question He Doesn’t study every day Hasn’t written his family Isn’t leaving tomorrow Does Has Is he You Should do your homework Have a large family Are a student here Shouldn’t Don’t Aren’t You Are you serious ? Are you sure ? Where did you hear ? When you learn ? Is this information correct ? He isn’t ,is he ? Does it really? How do you know that …..? Will it really ……..? Is it true …..? Is it really so ? He is , isn’t he ?

Book17 15 He went downtown , I went downtown He went downtown , and I did too                                          (so did I ) She doesn’t like fish , they don’t like fish She doesn’t like ,and neither do they                                    (They don’t either)

Book18 1 Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join nouns ,adjectives ,adverbs ,phrases ,and clauses. Both …..And     and     not only …..but also  indicate addition Either .or indicates choice /alternative Neither ………nor indicates  negative choice / addition Each conjunction should be placed immediately in front Of the word ,phrase ,or clause it connects. Both Janet and her sister arrived last night . You can either go with me or stay here. He’s not only intelligent but also wealthy Roy drives neither carelessly nor fast When the compound subjects of sentence are joined  by either ……..or / neither …nor ,the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the number of the noun phrase closest to it . Either mr Reynolds or his sons always attend the company’s annual meeting . Neither passengers nor the bus driver was injured in the accident .

Book18 2 Lt hill flew the plane The plane was flown by lt hill

Book18 3 Ann : what is the matter ,tom ?             Why are you so late ? Ann asked (tom) what the matter was                              Why he was so late .

Book18 4 it +be –verb + adj + that noun clause . it Is possible Was clear (that) Someone made a mistake The party was over

Book18 5 Conditional clause (cause) Main clause (effect ) If he exercised regularly If you called steve now If you left earlier If I were you He would probably feel better You might be able to reach him We would get home before dark I’d follow the doctor’s advise   Main clause( effect )   Main clause (cause ) Sam wouldn’t get so cnfused You could get your money back I might understand her better This would be a better movie If he followed instructions If you had your sales slip If she spoke more slowly If it weren’t so long

Book18 6 Wish That noun clause The students wish My instructor wishes Captain Wilson wishes The trainees often wish (that) They graduated sooner She could retire next year He were a four –star general They weren’t in the service

Book18 7 Used to Infinitive without to Harry Janet they Used to Work Teach Ride In an office downtown Classes at the university To work together every day

Book18 8 Be used to / be accustomed to Noun/gerund They are used to Jean isn’t used to We were accustomed to I wasn;t accustomed to Beef and potatoes for dinner Eating supper at six o’clock Dry weather in Arizona Carrying an umbrella everywhere

Book18 8 you shouldn’t / should you ought to /have to you’d better /better not it’s best /best not to it’s dangerous to watch out /watch out for look out /look out for be careful /be careful to be sure to / be sure not to don’t

Book18 9 Sub + verb + direct object + to-inf   I We they Advice Expect Require You Every one Their customers To make a reservation To leave the meeting To pay in advance     These are some of the verbs which can appear in this pattern Ask, advice ,allow ,cause ,convince ,expect , help , instruct ,invite ,need ,order , permit ,require ,select ,teach ,tell, want ,warn ,would like

Book18 10 Negative questions are formed by adding the word not after the verb or modal : Were you not at the meeting Did the secretary not notify you ? Why was every one not told it ? However ,a contraction of and the verb or modal is almost always used in informal speech and writing Weren’t you at the meeting ? Didn’t the secretary notify you ? Why wasn’t everyone told about it ? The use of a negative yes-no question indicates that the speaker thinks he already knows the answer. He hopes for or expects an affirmative response from the listener ,even though he doesn’t always receive one   Wasn’t the game postponed ? Yes ,it was off until next weekend . Haven’t we met some where before ? No ,I don’t believe so A negative question that begins with a question –word is simply a request for information Why wasn’t the game held today ? The coach had to be out of town     Who hasn’t met the new commander yet ? No one in our office has

Book18 11 Statement / tag You’re a pilot .aren’t you ? They study a lot ,don’t they ? We can leave now ,can’t we He isn’t a pilot , is he ? They don’t study a lot ,do they ? We can’t leave now , can we ?   Agreement I think so ,too Yes,you’re right . I couldn’t agree more (  means I agree ) That’s just what I was thinking I was going to say the same thing You took the words right out of my mouth Disagreement If you ask me …… But on the other hand . Yes ,that’s true .but …that’s not exactly what I mean I’m not sure that I agree with that Well, you have a good point ,but Do you think it’s right to say that ? It’s true that . ,but it’s also true that …….

Book18 12 Can’t / couldn’t as logical impossibility   Can’t and couldn’t are often used to mean “ it’s not possible that “or “ it’s impossible that ..) It’s not possible for the car to be out of gas It’s impossible for the car to be out of gas  The car can’t /couldn’t be out of gas

Book18 13 Have ,make and get   Have ,make ,and get  are often used to indicate that one person has the power to force another to do something   The major can’t attend the meeting ,he’ll have the captain go instead When the jacksons work in their house or yard ,they make their children help I’ve been calling the store for an hour ,but I can’t get any one there to answer the phone Get is followed by a noun or pronoun and a to-infinitive ,have and make are followed by a noun or pronoun and infinitive without to     He Had Made The mechanic Fix The car Got To fix

Book18 14 Modals in the perfect tense have the following meanings : May have ,might have ,and could have express possibility about a past action or condition The secretary may have gone to lunch They might have taken a different flight You could have cashed a check at the px   Must have indicates that deduction is being made about a past action or condition They’re not hungry .they must have already eaten Should have ,and ought to have indicate that a past obligation wasn’t fulfilled .they also express the idea that a sensible was not taken   We should have asked ted to eat dinner with us I ought to have studied more for the test Should not have is used to indicate that a past action or condition was not wise He shouldn’t have changed lanes without signaling

Book18 15     Main clause Adjective clause She’s a person Is that the book Here’s the money (whom) (Which) (That) I’d like to meet The teacher gave you ? I borrowed for you Many Americans use “ who “ instead of “whom “

Book18 16 Verb Suffix noun Advertise Agree Appoint   + - ment Advertisement Agreement Appointment

Book19 1 Many phrasal verbs and phrasal propositional verbs are inseparable ,that they cannot be separated by an object ,some ,however can  be either separable or inseparable they often have one meaning when they are separable and a different one when they are separable and a different one when they are inseparable .these verbs are included in the list and marked with an asterisk Be back =to return Be up for =to be eligible for Blow out =to burst or explode Check in =to register to report your arrival Check in = to leave ,to report your departure Clear up =to become clear speaking of the weather Come back =to return Come in = to arrive as expected Come over =to make a short informal visit Cut down on =to reduce in quantity or amount Drop by =to visit unexpectedly or informally Drop in = to pay a visit informally Drop off = to fall asleep Drop over =to visit unexpectedly or informally End up = to finish in a certain place /way Fall in =to line up in formation Get along with =to be in agreement Get in = to arrive Get off =to leave a vehicle ,to leave work Get on =to enter a vehicle Get rid of =to free oneself from ,to throw a way ,to give away something Get up =to rise from a sitting or lying position   Go back= to return Go out = to leave the house ,especialtty for fun to stop burning /shining Go over =to review ,to make a short ,informal visit Hold on =to wait , to wait on the phone Look forward to =to anticipate pleasurably Look out (for )= to take care /be careful of Put up with =to tolerate without complaining Run into =to incounter ,collide with Run out of = to use the entire  supply Sign in /out =to write one’s name on roll for record keeping purposes Sit down =to take a seat /occupy a chair Stand up =to rise to upright position on your feet Take part in = to participate in Take care of =to assume responsibility Take off =to depart Watch out for = to take care /be carefull of Work on =to repair work out = to exercise

Book19 2 To show that people own or possess something ,we added apostrophe and –s (‘s) to a singular noun or irregular plural noun .the pronunciation is the same as with plural nouns When the final sound is voiced (words that end with the letters m,n,b,v,l,r,g, or a vowel we pronounce  ‘s as /z/ Sally rents apartment This is sally’s apartment The restroom for men is next to the elevator The men’s restroom is next to the elevator The women own that car That’s the women’s car When the final sound is voiceless (words that end with the letter s,t,p,f,k ) we pronounce ‘s as /s /   The report the lieutenant made was long The lieutenant’s report was long When the final sound ends in the letters s ,sh ,ch,ge ,x,or z we pronounce ‘s as /ez/ When we have a plural noun ,we add only the apostrophe (‘) after the final  -s the pronounciation doesn’t change   The students have books Those are the students’ books The lunchroom for the employees is closed The employees’ lunch room is closed

Book19 3   Subject Pronouns i You She He It We They Object pronouns Me You Her Him It Us them Possive adjectives and pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns My Yours truly, his Her Its Our Their Mine Yours truly, his Hers Its Ours Theirs   Possessive adjectives are used before nouns This is my pen That’s your book These her papers Possessive pronouns are used alone without nouns This pen is mine That book is yours These papers are yours These are hers The pronoun its is not commonly used

Book19 4 Couldn’t have We use  couldn’t have +past participle to express logical impossibility about a past action   Mark couldn’t have quit the job I saw him at work just this morning   Lt rice couldn’t have been promoted yet He only recently became a lieutenant   Mary couldn’t have called me last night My phone was out of order   George couldn’t have been in school the 25 th It was a Sunday

Book19 5 We use could have =past participle to express past unfulfilled ability   Curtis could have gone to college He decided to get a job instead Molly could have been a supervisor But she turned down the offer

Book19 6 Few /afew and  little /alittle can be used as adjectives and pronouns when we them as adjectives and pronouns .when we use them as adjectives ,we use a few /few with count nouns and a little /little with noncount nouns Michelle has a few friends Michelle has few friends (friends can be counted ) Jan likes a little sugar in her coffee Jan likes little sugar in her coffee (sugar cannot be counted) A few and a little express ,in a positive way ,the presence of something even though in a small  quantity   A few people attended the concert (several people were there ) John knows alittle about comuters (he knows some things ) Few and little express ,in a negative way ,the absence of nearly all quantity Few people attended the meeting (not many people went ) Larry knows little about physics (he knows almost nothing about it )

Book19 7 Conditional sentences :past unreal condition or situation Conditional sentences have two parts : the if-clause and the main clause .one type of Conditional sentences is used to show a past unreal condition or situation . it tells what could ,would or might have happened in the past if a certain condition or situation had been true .the ief –clause has the past perfect tense ,and the main clause uses could have /might have /would have = a past participle .note That if – clause may come before or after the main clause     If clause Main clause If we had left earlier We Could Might Would Have been on time     Main clause If clause Ed Could Might Would Have passed If he had studied harder   If clause Main clause If you had had more money What Could Might Would You have done ?   Could Might Would You have gone If you had finished your work ?

Book19 8 Suffixes –able and -ible  are added to certain nouns and verbs to make adjectives .these adjectives have the meaning of “capable of “or showing /having “ Sam agrees with everything we say He ‘s very agreeable   Smoking isn’t permitted here It’s not permissible here   Here is a partial list of same nouns and verbs to which –able and –ible can be added: Accept /acceptable Adjust/adjustable Advise /advisable Afford/affordable Agree/agreeable Believe /believable Break/breakable Change/changeable Collect/collectible /collectable/ Comfort /comfortable Compare /comparable Control/controllable Depend/dependable Disagree/disagreeable Enjoy/enjoyable Honor/honorable Inflate /inflatable Knowledge /knowledgeable Like /likable   Love/lovable Manage /manageable Measure/measurable Mistake /mistakable Move /moveable/movable Notice/noticeable Obtain/obtainable Permit /permissible Prefer /preferable Prevent  / preventable Profit /profitable Question/questionable Reason /reasonable Refund /refundable Rely/reliable Respect /respectable Sense /sensible Tax/taxable Wash/washable

Book19 9 Wish :past unreal situation We use wish +that noun clause (containing a past perfect verb ) to express regret about a past situation .the word “that “ is optional   I wish (that ) I had become a doctor instead of teacher Amy wishes (that) she hadn’t brought that dress last week because it’s on sale now   Do you wish (that ) you had gone to college instead of getting married ?

Book19 10 Too and very Very is used to express” to a great degree “it means a lot or much This box is very heavy ,but ray can pick it up My coffee’s very hot ….just the way I like it Too is used to express excessiveness .it means more than enough ,the use of too implies a negative result This box is too heavy ,ray can’t pick it up My coffee’s too hot to drink ,I’ll wait until it cools off . Both too and very are placed before adjectives or adverbs

Book19 11 a passive to- infinitive (to +be +past participle )can be used as a direct object of certain verbs such as expect ,hope ,need,prefer and want .   Mike expect to be obserced on his job today Lt wyn hopes to be considered for that assignment The general would like to be served immediately The colonel needs to be answered homestly Mr smith prefers not to be disturbed before 9:00 The woman want to be given respect

Book19 12 Indirect speech : reported present progressive .  A present progressive tense in direct speech should be changed to the progressive in indirect speech Ann: I’m going to the coast this weekend Ann said that she was going to the coast this weekend Ed : al ,wre you taking the bus to work tomorrow ? Ed asked me if /whether iwas taking the bus to work tomorrow Lee: sid ,when are you planning to go hunting ? Lee asked sid ,when he was planning to go hunting .

Book20 1 Adjective quantifier Some adjective quantifiers are used only with nouns which name things that can be counted .others are used only with nouns naming things which cannot be counted ,many however ,can be used with both types of nouns   Count nouns Non count nouns Both count and non count nouns Many Several A few Few Much A little Little Some  any a great deal of more a lot of most lots of enough plenty of all

Book 20 2 To inquire about the amount or quantity of something ,we use a question beginning with how much ,or how many How much is used with noncount nouns and how many  with count nouns  How much gas does this tank hold ? How many gallons of gas did you buy ? To express quantity or amount ,we use the pattern below : Unit noun +of +count /non count noun The recipe calls for a pint of cream There were only two cans of soup left

Book 20 3 How much ..? how many ………? Quantity /amount A cup of  , an ounce of  ,  a pound of ,A glass of ,  a pint of ,       a kilo of A bowl of ,   a quart of ,    a gallon of ,a battle of , a tea spoon of , a jar of ,a can of , A bag of ,a table spoon of , a loaf of , a pack of A box of , a bar of , a bunch of .   A GROCERY LIST   Items Quantity /amount Cheese          cigarettes Chicken                soap Beans                   milk Carrots                 soda Bread             potatoes Peanut              cooking Butter                      oil Pack             pound (lb) Bar                          can Gallon                    box Quart                      jar Bunch             bottle Bag                kilo Loaf              bottle

Book 20 4 Of with pronoun quantifiers To express quantity or amount ,we often use a pronoun that indicates “ how much “ Or how many “ followed by of All of the students went on the tour I was able to answer most of the questions Pronoun quantifiers +of Much of All of Either of Few of On of Many of Most pf Neither of A few of Two of Some of Half of Both of  Little of Three of Any of None of None of More of  A little of

Book 20 5 Present progressive passive The present progressive tense is used to refer to an activity or event which is currently in progress. The mechanic is repairing my car They are offering courses in Spanish   The passive form is used when the agent either is not known or is not considered as important the action or event   My car is being repaired (by the mechanic ) Courses in Spanish are being offered Passive form of the present the progressive tenses   Am Are Is Being Past participle

Book 20 6 Past progressive passive The past progressive tense refers to actions or events which are no longer in progress Someone was painting their house yesterday The doctor was treating the patients The use of the passive form emphasizes the receiver of the past action rather than its agent .it can also indicate that the agent not known Their house was being painted yesterday The patients were bring treated (by the doctor ) Passive form of the past progressive   Was Were Being Past participle

Book 20 7 Else Notice these sentences that contain word pairs with “else “ they are question –words ,pronouns , and adverbs ,they mean a different or another person ,thing ,place ,reason ,or manner Question –word Who Whom What Else Will be the party ? Should we ask to the party ? Can I do Where When How Why Else Can I look for my keus ? Do you have time ? Can I get there ? Would he do it ?       Pronouns He doesn’t remember Do you know Can you tell me Who else was there Whom else she spoke to ? What else he said   Adverbs She doesn’t know       Can you tell me Where else she should look When else to have the party     How else I can do it ? Why else he would say that ?

Book 20 8 Causative have and get Joe Linda I have to Did you How often do you Why doesn’t she When was he Last time you Had Got Get  get Have Have   Had His prescription Her letter My transmission Your laundry Your hair Her car   The oil in your car Filled Approved Checked Done cut Painted   changed

Book 20 9 Indirect speech : reported simple past tense When a statement or question in the past tense is reported To changes occur :   1- the tense of the verb changes from simple past to past perfect   Jane said ,”Jim joined the army “ Jane said jim had joined the army “Did anne attend the meeting ?”al ask Al asked if anne had attended the meeting . 2-First and second person pronouns changed to the third person ( unless someone is reporting his own words )   Jim said “ I joined the army “ Jim said that he had loined the army Al asked /” did you attend the meeting ,ann? Ann said “yes ,I went to the meeting ,al “ Ann: I told al that I had gone to the meeting

Book 20 10 -ive /-tive /ative  suffix Sometimes we can add the suffixes –ive ,-tive ,or ative to verb or noun to make an adjective ,adjective formed in this way indicate a certain tendency ,character ,or quality Linda talks all the time ,she’s very talkative . This watch has a defect ,it’s a defective watch Our farm produces large crops ,the land is very productive A change in the spelling of the verb or noun is required in some cases .when either – tive is added to a word that ends with the letter e ,that letter is omitted   Communicate /communicative Create /creative Defense /defensive Produce /productive In other cases ,letters in the stem are changed   Destroy /destructive Persuade persuasive Produce /productive

Book 20 11 Comparisons of quantifiers : little ,few ,much ,many   Positive Comparative Superlative Little Few Much Many Less(than ) Fewer (than ) More (than ) More (than ) The least The fewest The most The most

Book 20 12 Mary takes vitamins so (that ) she won’t get sick He hurried  so ( that ) he would n’t be late She’s studying more so (that )she can graduate on time Phil moved to rome so ( that ) he could learn Italian

Book 20 13 As much as /as many as To express the idia of equality or the lack of it ,we can use as much as or as many as in the following pattern   As much /as many (+noun +as +noun /pronoun (verb ) Rita knows as many people as sarah does Ed doesn’t earn as much money as bob As many as is used with count nouns We took as many pictures as we could As much as is used with noncount (mass) nouns I don’t get as much mail as you do

Book 20 14 Adverb comparisons Positive Comparative Superlative Much More (than) The most Little Less (than ) The least

Book 21 1 We use the comparative form of adjectives and adverbs when we compare or imply comparison of two persons ,things ,etc .we use the superlative form when we compare or imply comparison of three or more persons ,things ,etc . For most adjectives and adverbs of one syllable or those of two syllables that end in er, le .ow .ure .or y .add er to the adjective or adverb to form to the comparative to form the superlative add the -est Comparative : -er Superlative : the – est Adjective Old Older The oldest Young Younger The Youngest Pretty Prettier The prettiest         Adverbs Late Later The latest Fast Faster The fastest Early Earlier The earliest   We use the word than after the adjective or adverb when those that are being compared are mentioned .in this structure , subject pronouns ,he ,she .we ,you ,they , follow the word   We will arrive earlier than they (will) John runs faster than he does With most adjective and adverbs of two or more syllables ,except those mentioned above put more or less before the adjective or adverb to form the comparative to form the superlative ,put the most ,or the least Comparative :more /less Adjectives Careful Beautiful More careful More beautiful Less careful Less beautiful     Adverbs Often Beautifully Softly * More often More beautifully More softly Less often Less beautifully Less softly         Superlative : the most /the least adjectives Careful Beautiful The most Careful The most Beautiful The least Careful The least Beautiful     Adverbs Often Beautifully Softly * The most  often The most  beautifully The most  softly The least often The least beautifully The least softly   Note : there are exceptions Irregular forms of adjectives and adverbs Bad Badly Far Good well Worse Worse Farther /further Better Better The worst The worst The farthest /furthest The best The best   Paul ran farther than harry Money is the further thing from my mind

Book 21 2 Too +adverb+ to +infinitive Besides meaning more than enough or more than is necessary for a particular purpose the word too also indicates a problem or difficulty .look at too followed by an adverb and for +object  and /or the to –infinitive This city grows too rapidly For me   (for me ) To keep up with it

Book 21 3 Reported past progressive speech The past progressive is used to describe an action in the past which happening when another action occurred Statement with progressive 1st action (main clause ) 2nd action Time ) Ben was eating dinner When tom called   In reporting what was said in a past progressive statement or a question ,change the past progressive to the past perfect progressive the verb in the time remains the same What did al Say ?   Tell You ? Reported speech with past perfect progressive   Al said     (that )   Ben had been eating   When tom called Al told   Me Was Ben eating when tom called What did al say? (Ask you?) Al asked )me ) if (whether )Ben had been eating when tom called

Book 21 5 Showing effect or result Punctuation mr. green lost his job ; as a result he can’t buy a new car thus therefore consequently       mr. green lost his job . as a result he can’t buy a new car thus therefore consequently

Book 21 6 How tall is he ? How well does he play the guitar ? How sick ? How difficult ? How definite ? How often ? How near ? How many ? How fast ? How cold ? How resent ?

Book 21 7  In the passive the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb .the passive is formed with the verb BE +the past participle The agent may or may not appear in passive voice sentences   Capt lee helps lt reed Lt ree is helped by capt lee     They wash the cars the cars The cars are washed   Capt lee helped lt reed Lt reed was helped by capt lee They washed the car The cars were washed     Capt lee has helped lt reed Lt reed has been helped by capt lee   They have washed the cars The cars have been washed   The present perfect passive is used to indicate an indefinite past action

Book 21 8 Changing to nouns   -y   Honest /honestly -ty   Certain /certainty Entire /entirety Special /specialty Uncertainty Loyalty Safety -ity Electricity .formality. Reality, personality, Regularity, Popularity, Nationality Publicity, Fatality, Stupidity, Elasticity, Rigidity, Humidity, Technicality Seniority Ity (silent vowel dropped ) Security ,creativity –clear .clarity –activity .severity (generous )generosity Ility (l+silent vowel) dropped) Responsibility –eligibility –visibility –ability Sensibility –flexibility –prop ability –ability -sensibility -capability -possibility

Book 21 9 A restrictive adjective clause modifies a noun by describing or giving additional information about that noun .it always directly follows so closely .this clause frequently separates the noun from the verb     Adjective clauses ca n be introduced by the relative pronouns that /which .who /who  and relate to the subject of the clause .in this type of structure e the clause is linked to part or all of the main clause   The book is on the table it is interesting The book that is on the table is interesting   The movie was on TV yesterday it made me cry   The movie which was on TV yesterday made me cry   The man is my neighbor .he is very tall The man who is my neighbor is very tall   Adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative pronouns who (m) /which /that and relate to the object of the clause .the clause relative pronouns may be omitted     The woman was beautiful .i met her in the library The woman (who )m) I met in the library was beautiful   The course is very (which ) I’m taking this semester is very difficult   The wallet belongs to larry /mark found it in the lab The wallet (that ) mark found in the lab belongs to larry     Some adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs where /when and relate to the place or time   I prefer th French restaurant .we ate there last week I prefer the French restaurant where we ate last week   Do you remember the night when we ran out of gas   Another restrictive adjective clause is introduced by the relative adjective whose ./it is used to show possession and replaces the possessive directly after the noun to which it relates almost always refers to people     Last night ,we met a man .his wife was born in Australia The people are being transferred we’re buying their house The people whose house we’re buying are being transferred

Book21 10 Non referential there +gerund   There +be means something exists .it can sometimes be followed by a gerund phrase   There was yelling and screaming at the football game There will be celebrating the graduation There is no smoking in this building

Book 21 11 Anticipatory it + gerund   A gerund is frequently used as the subject of a sentence   Traveling to Europe this summer will be exciting Not buying a new car was a big mistake     Sometimes the gerund is used in a sentence with an anticipatory it construction .the it and the gerund phrase mean the same thing     It’ll be exciting traveling to Europe this summer It was a big mistake not buying a new car     The pattern used in these sentences is : It +be +noun /adjective +gerund phrase

Book 21 12 The past perfect passive is used to indicate an action or event which occurred before another action or event in the past * note that passive voice changes occur only in the main clause the statement   noun clause time expression voice subject verb object active john had finished the report before al left Passive the report had been finished                   3:00             4:00       6:00 The report was finished                        al left the office       now

Book 22 13 Adjective clause reduced to to-inf  phrase   Restrictive adjective clauses can be reduced to  to- inf phrases .for +noun or pronoun sometimes comes before the to-inf phrase     Roger has a lot (that )he must learn Roger has a lot tom learn   Mr kent is the man (whom ) you should talk to about your taxes Mr kent is the man to talk to about your taxes I brought some snacks (that )we can eat later I brought some snacks for us to eat later   Relative clauses introduced by when and where can also be reduced to to –inf phrases     Do you know a place (where ) I can buy batteries ? Do you know a place to buy batteries ?   Saturday’s the only day (when )I can do the laundry Saturday’s the only day to do the laundry   I know of a good place (where )you can meet me   I know of a good place for you to meet me

Book21 14 Gerunds and infinitives after be   The to –inf and gerund forms can be used as subject complements after the verb be there are differences in the usage of the two Subjects which express duty ,advice, purpose Etc ,are often followed by inf –es   Tim’s goal is to learn Russian Her purpose in life to be a good teacher     His favorite sport is swimming Her biggest problem is doing her homework

Book 21 15 Noun clauses after certain verbs A noun clauses can be used after certain verbs a noun clauses can be used after certain verbs That express necessity and requesting .some of the more common verbs are . ask ,advice, Recommend , insist, request ,order ,command ,suggest ,urge that can be used to introduce these clauses it can also be omitted in this structure when a noun clause follows one of these verbs ,the verb in the clause has no-s for third person singular and no-ed for past tense .be is used instead of is ,am ,are ,we say that the verb is a subjective form : his mother insisted (that )he be home at eight I suggested to john (that ) he study for the test Mr . former recommended (that ) we not leave today

Book 22 1 present progressive vs simple present tense present progressive simple present tense   use the present progressive to talk about something that is happening now use the simple oresent tense to talk about something that happens all the time look ! it’s snowing ! excuse me,what are you doing ? john and his cousinare jogging  around the block can you please talk lower ?i’m listening to the radio she ‘s boiling water so she can make tea where ‘s jack / he’s visiting his mother it usually snows her in the winter what do you do after class most of the time ? do you ever jog ? yes ,I jog every morning he often listens to the radio after class water boils at 100 degree centigrade jack visits his mother every friday

Book22 2 Review of yes /no questions statement yes/no question a statement gives some kind of information a yes /no question is a simple question which elicits a yes or a no answer /it can begin with forms of do .forms of be has/have /had or modals they live in new York he rides a bicycle to work she’s studying to work she ‘s studying French at night they ‘ll have tomorrow Linda lost her keys they were studying when the lights went out you should eat .jack’s made soup the girls had already eaten before they got home  do they live in new york ? does he ride a bicycle to work ? is she studying French at night ? will they leave tomorrow ? did Linda lose her keys ? didn’t she lose her keys ? were they studying when the lights went out ? should we eat ?has jack made soup ? had the girls already eaten before they got home ? hadn’t the girls already eaten before they got home ?

Book 22 3   Prefix re – The prefix re – has the the meaning of again Remarried reconsider .rered ,rearrange .rewrite ,Reapply , re-enlist formal speech to introduce an adverb clause of manner which expresses how someone or something tc.

Book 22 4 As if /  as though The conjunctions as if and as though are preferred In in formal speech to introduce an adverb clause of manner which expresses how someone or something looks .sounds .smells .feels .or seems .informally however we use like   it smells as if as though like * something is burning     We can also use as if or as though to show how some one does something   Helen speaks as though she knows that subject very well Bob always acts as if he’s mad Rita reads that story a though she’s written it Colloquial or informal speech

Book 22 5 Suffix – ness We can add the suffix – ness to some adjectives make nouns which then express the quality or state of being :   Dark /darkness .    ready /readiness ,,  ill /illness Dizzy /dizziness .   friendly ./ friendliness   .  lazy /laziness Empty /emptiness .great /greatness   quick /quickness Eager /eagerness  . happy /happiness .   .sick /sickness Note the spelling ,change y to I

Book 22 6 Noun as object complement after verbs of choosing   In sentences that contain verbs of choosing ,considering and thinking ,two nouns can follow the verb .these two nouns refer the same person or the same thing .these sentences may be written different ways . The players elected Jim as their leader The players elected Jim to be their leader The players elected Jim their leader (Jim =leader ) The commander has declared next Monday as a holiday The commander has declared next Monday to be a holiday The commander declare next Monday a holiday (next Monday =a holiday ) Note : in some sentences either as to be can used but not both

Book22 7 Reducing adjective clauses to adjective phrases Sentences that contain adjective clause can be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to adjective phrases either present or past participle is used in the phrase     Cars that are parked on the grass must be moved Cars parked on the grass must be moved   No one who is taking the may leave the room No one taking the test may leave the room The meal that is being planned is a special one The meal being planned is a special one

Book 22 8  Reducing adjective clauses to prepositional phrases Sentences that contain adjective clauses with a subject pronoun and the verb have and a direct object can be shortened by changing the adjective clauses to prepositional phrases .adjective clauses that contain have /don’t have are reduced to prepositional phrases containing with or without   subject adjective       subject pronoun be+have prepositional phrases predicate the pay phone the pay phone that’s that’s on the wall on the wall doesn’t work doesn’t work the cap the cao that has that has a star on it with a star on it is the general’s is the general’s

B00k 22 9 Sequencing modifiers before nouns Study the columns below /they show the kinds of words that can be used to describe something and the order in which the words are usually placed determiner that tells which or  how many adjective that gives description adjective that gives a physical description noun used as an adjective noun head word an mom;s their the no two several a dozen exciting delicious dangerous clear major interesting eager cheap hot narrow heavy blue new young small white soccer apple mountain combat health tv college state paper match pie roads boots sky problems programs students colleges plates   1.Determiner )a .an .his. on of my .several .dozen .some .any 2. ordinal number (first ,second ……..) 3. cardinal number (1,2,3,4……) 4.Descriptive (exciting ,marvelous ……..) 5 . size .shape 6. condition .state (hot .cold ) 7 . color 8. nationality 9 . noun adjunct or gerund 10 . noun head word

Book 22 10 Verb +that –noun clause A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb and is used as part a sentence .there are certain verbs that are followed by that (optional )+ noun clause   Noun clause I think Did you forget (that )I’l leave tomorrow (that )john is n’t here today   The following verbs can be used with noun clauses beginning with that Agree, figure out ,imagine  , observe ,say Believe ,find out , indicate predict ,tell ,decide ,regret ,know ,read ,discover ,guess ,learn ,realize ,think, doubt ,hear ,notice ,regret ,feel ,hope ,understand remember

Book 22 11 Emphatic do When we want to stress or emphasize an action can use do ,does ,did ,before the verb Alan : do you want to play soccer with this afternoon Rick : I don’t play soccer ,but I do play tennis Ann :does Andy have a class tonight ? Paul : not tonight ,but he does have one Monday Bart  : not you meet my niece last night ? Owen : no ,but I did meet your nephew Note : use the emphatic do sparingly (بشكل ضئيل (

Book 22 12 suffixes –ful and –less We can add the suffixes –ful and –less ,to some nouns to make adjectives .the suffixes –ful and –less have opposite meanings : -ful means “full of or having “ and ,-less “ means without “ Or not having     Power   the general is a very powerful man (he has a lot of power and authority ) I couldn’t do any thing .i felt powerless (I didn’t have the power to do anything   Care   key always obeys the traffic laws ,she’s a careful driver Gary doesn’t  follow traffic rules .he’s a careless driver We cannot add these suffixes to all nouns to make words with opposite meaning   Friend  he is friendless He doesn’t have a friend We can’t ad-full to ‘friend “

Book 22 13 Modal review Can /was or were going to /be unable to /had better   Can is used to show possibility   You can see the whole city from this tower Mark can jog tonight if he finishes work early   Was /were going to  is used to show past intention   I was going to call you ,but I didn’t have time We were going to go to the beach ,but it stated to rain   Be unable to is used to show inability or in capability Ed has lost his watch and is unable to find it The sound was too low ,so we were unable to hear the tape clearly   Was /were going to is used to show past intention I was going to call you ,but I didn’t have time We were going to the beach ,but it started to rain   Be unable to is used to show inability or incabality El has lost his watch and is unable to find it The sound was too low ,so we were unable to hear the tape clearly   Had better is used to give advice We had better call off the soccer game tonight It’s starting to rain .you ‘d better take your umbrella

Book 22 14 Get –passive Get-passive is used to refer to an action That happens to something or someone   The house will get finished eventually John and sue  got married last Saturday Rome didn’t get built in a day Larry has gotten accepted by smith university

Book 22 15 Indirect speech : Reported present perfect A present perfect tense in direct speech should be changed to the past perfect in indirect speech Pam : have you ever been to Paris ,Paul ? Paul : no ,I’ve never been there Dan: what did Pam ask you ? Paul : she asked if I had ever been to Paris ?

Book23 1 Present and past participles as noun modifiers A participle is a verb form which can be used either in a verb phrase or as adjective .the participle ends in –ing .the past participle ends is –ed –d –t –n –or en The water which is boiling produces steam (present participle used in a verb phrase ) Boiling water produces steam . (present participle used as an adjective ) He opened the envelope which had been sealed (past participle used in a verb phrase ) He opened the sealed envelope (past participle used as an adjective ) In a participle – noun combination ,the noun receives the primary stress (/) and the participle receives the secondary stress ( \ ) He walked for a mile in the  pouring rain The bank will return your cancelled check

Book23 2  Review of question – word questions Question – word questions are used to ask for specific information ,such at a time ,a name ,a location or a ……..,they begin with one of the question words : who ,whom ,which ,what ,whose ,when ,where ,why ,and how .     Where the party ? Who’s invited ? How many people will be there ? What time does the entertainment start ? When are you going ?

Book23 3  present and past participle as objective complements a present or past participle can be used after a direct object to modify the direct object .the direct and participle will follow the verb catch ,discover ,find ,keep or leave ,(note : the verb catch doesn’t ordinarily take a past participle as a complement ) a present participle is used when the direct object performs an action a past participle is used when the direct object receives the action Subject Verb Direct object Participle We Found  The other guests Waiting for us  He Kept  His fear of heights  Hidden

Book 23 4 Review of the imperative form The second person imperative is used to give commands .instructions ,and directions . the simple form of the verb(the bare infinitive ) is used .the negative imperative is formed with do not or don’t   Answer the phone (you) Answer Don’t move Go The phone ,please The victim Two blocks straight a head

Book 23 5 Adverb clauses of time Adverb clauses of time show the chronological relationship of one action to another ,they usually modify the verb of the main clause but can also modify the whole sentence ,most follow the main clause and are not separated from it by a comma . Please lock the door when you leave others precede the main clause and  are followed by a comma When you leave ,please lock the door   Adverb of clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions : as ,after ,before ,now that ,until ,when ,while ,whenever ,since ,and as soon as .

Book 23 6 The gerund as a noun modifier A gerund is a verbal noun ending in –ing ,it can be used before another noun to describe that noun’s phrase   A fishing boat =a boat for fishing   In a gerund –noun combination ,the gerund receives the primary stress (/) the other noun receives ta weaker stress called third (\)   Typing paper =paper for typing

Book23 7 Prepositions of place and direction Prepositions which indicate place or location At, beside , near ,over , above , between ,next to ,throughout ,among ,in ,on ,under ,behind , in back of , on top of , underneath ,below , in front of , opposite ,beneath ,inside Prepositions which indicate direction of movement Around ,from ,on ,through , as far as ,in ,onto ,to ,away from , into , out (of ) ,toward (s) down ,off ,past ,up

Book 23 8 The suffix – ward   The suffix – ward (s) is used to  form adjectives and adverbs which indicate a direction in time or space . Northward ,southward ,eastward ,westward ,upward(s) ,downward(s) backward (s)

Book 23 9 The suffix –ern The suffix  -ern indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a certain direction It is added to nouns to form adjectives     Northern ,southern , eastern ,western

Book 23 10 Indirect speech : reported present perfect progressive When a statement or question in the present perfect progressive tense is reported ,two changes occur :   1 . the tense of the verb changes from the present perfect progressive to the past perfect progressive     Jim said ;” ann has been teaching French “ Jim said that ann had been teaching French   Jan asked ;” have you been working here long ,ed ? Jan asked ed if he had been working here long   2. first and second person pronouns change to the third person (unless someone is reporting his own words )   Ken said ;” I have been trying to lose weight “ Ken told me that he had been trying to lose weight Kay said ;” I’ve been trying to reach you ,jan “ I told jan I had been trying to reach her

Book 23 11 He he told me that they had been working all day Verb in the sentences Originally spoken  Verb in the sentence that tells what was said Have /has been –ing Had been –ing Hasn’t /haven’t been –ing Hadn’t been –ing

Book 23 12 Using : should ,ought to ,and should have to express expectancy   Should and ought to are used to express what we suppose is happening now or will probably  happen in the future   I mailed the package yesterday You should get it tomorrow We ordered dinner 20 minutes ago The waiter ought to be bringing our food soon   Should have is used to express expectations about actions or conditions in the past   The flight left Miami on schedule It should have already landed in new York

Book 23 13 Suffixes  -ance /.ence  The suffixes – ance , and ence can be added to verbs from nouns which name an act ,condition or quality   Accept +ance …………acceptance (the act of accepting ) Exist +ence …………….existence ( the condition of existence )   Acceptance ,annoyance ,appearance ,assistance ,attendance ,convergence ,confidence ,correspondence ,difference , dependence ,existence ,insistence ,interference ,maintenance ,resistance ,negligence ,observance ,performance ,reliance ,tolerance

Book 23 15 Review of adverbs of degree Adverbs of degree are used to emphasize or limit adjectives or other adverbs ,the following adverbs of degree are placed in front of the word they modify: A little , entirely ,much ,scarcely , absolutely ,extremely ,nearly so ,almost ,fairly ,only ,somewhat ,awfully ,far ,quite ,such a (n) ,barely ,hardly , rather ,too ,completely ,just ,really ,very   One adverb of degree differs from these enough follows the adjective or adverb it modifies   I though the test was fairly easy Al found the exam extremely difficult He must not have studied hard enough The students did rather well on their tests this morning

Book 24 1 The gerund as direct object Some verbs in enough are  followed by a gerund or a gerund phrase .the gerund is the verb form which ends in – ing the gerund is used as a noun Type of sentence Subject Verb Gerund (phrase ) Affirmative I She They Putt off Practice Considered Studying until today Speaking English Inviting mary Negative I He They Don’t like Doesn’t miss Don’t mind Wearing glass Being with his family Helping the police   I She They Like Regrets Deny Not wearing glasses Not being with her family Not helping the police Interrogative Do you Did he Can they Like Continue Begin Playing the guitar? Studying French ? Working on the report now?   This is a part list of verbs which can be follwed by a gerund   Allow ,enjoy ,postpone ,resist ,anticipate ,escape ,practice ,start ,appreciate ,finish ,put off ,stop ,begin ,imagine ,quit,suggest ,can’t help ,keep ,recall .tolerate ,consider ,like   (to ,ing ) recommend ,understand ,continue ,mind ,regret ,deny ,miss ,remember ,discuss ,permit ,report

Book 24 2 The suffix  - fy ,ify The suffix –fy or ify is added to some nouns and adjectives to make verbs .the suffix express the meaning of to make or become ,note the spelling   Beauty /beatify ,glory /glorify ,pure /purify ,class /classify ,just /justify ,simple /simplify ,clear /clarify ,liquid /liquefy ,solid /solidify ,electric /electrify ,person /personify ,terror /terrify ,false /falsify

Book 24 3 Reducing an adverb clause of time to a modifying phrase An adverb clause of time is introduced by conjunctions such as after ,before ,since ,until ,when ,whenever and while It can be reduced to a modifying phrase if the subject of the main clause and the subject of the main clause of time are the same this is done by omitting the subject of the adverb clause and by changing the verb in the adverb clause to the –ing form ,if the verb be is present in the verb clause it’s also omitted (*)     I feel sleepy whenever I study after dinner I feel sleepy whenever studying after dinner   Before we opened the door ,we head a loud a loud noise Before opening the door ,we heard a loud noise   Could you walk after you fell off the horse ? Could you walk after falling off the horse ? While you were in germany ,did you hear the news ? While in germany ,did you hear the news ?

Book 24 4 One use of the gerund A gerund or gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and appear before the verb ,it can be made negative by placing the word not before the gerund ,if there’s a subject of the gerund ,it must be in the possessive * form   Eating too much candy is bad for your teeth Not getting enough sleep will make you feel tired at work Johnny’s fast driving caused him to lose his license

Book 24 5 Another use of the gerund A gerund phrase can be the subject of a sentence and may appear after the verb in an anticipatory  it construction   It’s been a pleasure meeting you (means the same as ) Meeting you has been a pleasure It hasn’t been fun climbing this mountain (means the same as ) Climbing this mountain hasn’t been fun

Book 24 6 One more use of the gerund A gerund or gerund phrase may be used as the object of a preposition ,it can be made negative by placing the word not the gerund ,it must be in the possessive * form Thank you for being my friend We were happy about not having homework When he spoke to the soldiers ,the colonel insisted on their standing at attention   About ,at ,for ,in ,on ,over ,to with

Book 24 7 Tag questions Tag questions are short questions are attached to statements affirmative statements have negative tag questions ,negative statements have affirmative tag questions Tag question can have a rising intonation or falling intonation ,each kind of intonation expresses something different ,tag questions with arising intonation are used to seek  confirmation the speaker is not certain about the information ,tag questions with falling intonation are used to seek agreemeny  the speaker is certain about the information and wants you to agree with him I’m correct about the answer ,aren’t I ? We have to go to work tomorrow ,don’t we ? The weekends never seem long enough ,do they ?

Book 24 8 Subjective that noun clause after anticipatory it A noun clause which follows an anticipatory –it  construction has the verb in the subjunctive mood     Anticipatory –it Subjunctive noun clause           It’s Adjective             (that)     I be on time You do the work He not fail the exam She remain in class The book be studied We report to the chief The go to the meeting advisable Best Better Compulsory Critical Essential Important Mandatory Necessary Required Urgent

Book 24 9 Tenses indicating future A future action or condition is expressed with will or be going to, when there is certainty about a future action, the simple present tense or the present progressive may also be used. Time expressions often accompany these lat tenses to clarify time. The train Will depart Is going to depart Departs Is departing At 2:30 pm

Book 24 10 Indefinite pronounce : some -, any -, and no- compounds The indefinite pronounce something, someone, somebody , any thing , any one , any body can be used in questions. Did al put something in his car? Did you see someone /somebody in the lab? Would you like any thing to drink? Did you speak to anyone/anybody about your problem?

Book 24 11 To-infinitive as direct object An infinitive is the word to +simple form of a verb An infinitive ma is used as a noun .in the pattern illustrated below, an infinitive or an infinitive phrase is used as a direct object. Note the negative form of the phrase.     Subject Verb Direct object Infinitive phrase Mr crane Jerry The students Likes Is planning Will need To go to the movies To cook dinner tonight To do there home work Louise Monty The men Had decided Promised Agreed Not to watch TV Not to spend all his money Not to fight   This is a partial list of verbs which are followed by an infinitive. the verbs with an asterisk may also be followed by a gerund phrase Afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, bother, care, choose, decide, demand, determine, expect, fail, happen, hesitate, hope, learn, manage, offer, prepare, proceed, promise, refuse, request, seem, tend, threaten, volunteer, wait, want , wish, Asterisks : Attempt, begin, continue, forget, hate, intend, like, love, mean, need, neglect, plan, prefer, regret, remember, start, try.

Book24 12 Past perfect and past participle in indirect speech When direct speech with a past perfect or past perfect progressive tense is changed to indirect speech the tense doesn’t change “that “ may be added (it’s optional) personal pronouns and possessive adjectives changes ,for axample ,you may be changed to me ,your to my in questions ,the word order changes from question to statement (verb /subject order ) in yes/no questions ,add “if “ or “ whether”     Direct speech Ed: I’d worked in a bank before I came to this job   Ann:i D been swimming before sam called Ron : where had kim studied English before she came here ? Pam : had you met mr wong before ? Indirect speech Edd said (that ) he’d worked in bank before he come to this job Ann said she’d been swimming before sam called Ron asked where kim had studied English before she came here Pam asked me if /whether I had met mr wong before   The indefinite pronouns something ,someone ,some body ,anything ,anyone ,anybody ,nothing ,no one ,and nobody ,can be used in affirmative sentence   Ed put something in his desk A saw someone /somebody in the library You may choose anything you want from the menu Anyone /anybody in that office can help you Nothing you say will change my mind No one /no body wants to do the assignment The indefinite pronouns anything ,anybody ,and anyone can be used in negative sentence   Joe didn’t bring anything to wear for cold weather I don’t want anyone /anybody to know I’m leaving

Boo24 13 Indefinite :some =,any -,and ,no- compounds The indefinite adverbs someplace ,somewhere ,anyplace ,anywhere can be used in questions   Would you like to someplace /somewhere after dinner ? Are you going anyplace /anywhere this weekend ? The indefinite adverbs ,someplace ,somewhere ,anyplace ,anywhere ,noplace ,and nowhere, can be used in affirmative sentences   John went someplace /somewhere this morning Sit down anyplace /anywhere when the show begins Ed’s going noplace /nowhere during his vacation The indefinite adverbs anyplace and anywhere can be used in negative sentences   I feel ill ,so I won’t go anyplace /anywhere tonight

Book 24 14 Verbs of perception +bare inf or present participle Certain verbs of perception and their objects are followed by the bare inf (without “to”)or the oresent participle (the –ing form )the bare inf is used to emphasize completion of the action The present participle is used to emphasize the duration of the action These follow the pattern : Feel,look at ,observe , smell ,hear ,notice ,see ,watch ,listen to The verb smell can be used only with the present participle form   We saw him run /running  across the field I didn’t hear bill knock /knocking at the door Did you notice the doctor go /going into the room ? Can’t you smell the cookies baking in the kitchen ?

Book 24 15 We can add the suffixes –ent /ant to some verbs to make adjectives ,they express “that has  , shows ,does “ -ent -ant Absorb /absorbent Converge /convergent Depend/dependent Differ/different Excel/excellent Insist/insistent   Assistant Obsevant please /pleasant Rely /reliant Resist /resistant Tolerate /tolerant   Note the spelling change

Preposition s of time At – is used with time of day with an age ,and with the worlds ,night ,first ,last ,beginning ,end At noon ,at midnight ,at 7:00 am At the age of twelve At night ,at first,at last At the beginning ,at the end   On –days ,dates ,parts of certain day ,words time schedule    On Monday ,on your birthday On October 18 On the evening of june 8 On time ,on schedule   In quatities of time beginning ,end   In ten minutes ,in an hour In a week ,in two years In the beginning ,in the end From –with to ,or till ,or until Before and after   time of day ,dates ,nouns that names events or occurrences Before noon ,after 5 : pm ,before December 31 , after april 15 ,before the game ,after dinner After –quantity of time After 6 months After thirty years For –period of time Since –definit times

Become /get Become ……….noun                            Adjective Get ……………adjective

Too + oredicate adjective +to –infintive To express exessiteness Ex the food is too greasy ( I can’t eat it )

Present perfect tense S + have /has + past participle   1.Action begin in the past and still happening    I have been in amman since 1988  2 . an action began in the past and just finished        I have already eaten my launch  3 . an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past I have been to france   (already ,recently ,just ,since ,for ,yet ) This time       Present perfect progressive S + have /has + been + ing  I have been reading since 3 o’clock

Suffix-y Sun Wind Soap Grease y

Could …………past ability

Adjective clause   Who ___________ person Which __________things That ___________both person /things

الحمد لله رب العالمين